Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit is the most important component of a computer’s hardware. It could even be called ‘the computer’ by itself. It has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and a control unit.

 

The ALU, as the name indicates, performs all the arithmetical and logical operations. Examples of arithmetical operations are: addition, division, multiplication, etc. Examples of logical operations are: (1) Is A = B, where And B are both numeric alphanumeric? (2) Is a given character equal to M for male and F for female?, etc. All arithmetic and logical operations are performed in the CPU in special storage areas called resisters. The size of the resister is a very important consideration in determining the speed of processing. Resistor size refers to the amount of information that can be held in a resistor at a time for processing. A CPU’s processing power is measured in million instructions per second (MIPS). The speed of CPU was measured in milliseconds(one 1000^th of a second) on first generation computers, in micro-seconds(one billionth of a second) on second generation computers, in nano-seconds (one billionth of a seconds) on third and forth generation computers, and is expected to be measured in pico-seconds (one 1000^th of nano-seconds) in the future fifth generation computers.

 

The control unit, as the name indicates, control and co-ordinates all the operation of a CPU. It insures that the required information is transferred between the main memory, the arithmetic logic unit, input devices and output devices in the required and desired sequence, It also contains the logic circuits and storage needed for the control of multiple input and output devices. When a program beings an input operation, the control unit identifies the input devices and set up data paths for supplying the output information to the desired output devices.

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Physical units of a computer system constitute a computer’s hardware. When you look at a computer system you are actually looking at the computer hardware. A computer, like the human brain, receives information, stores it, processes it, and display results. A computer receives information from input devices, stores it in memory, processes this information in the central processing unit and display the results of processing in a useful from through output devices. A computer’s memory like the human’s is limited. Hence it stores most critical information in its main memory and less critical and less frequently used information in its secondary memory. Below we describe each of these parts in detail.

 

General characteristics

The primary requirement for a network to succeed as a cellular network is for it to have developed a standardized method for each distributed station to distinguish the signal emanating from its own transmitter from the signals received from other transmitters. Presently, there are two standardized solutions to this issue, frequency division multiple access (FDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA).

FDMA works by using varying frequencies for each neighboring cell. By tuning to the frequency of a chosen cell the distributed stations can avoid the signal from other cells. The principle of CDMA is more complex, but achieves the same result; the distributed transceivers can select one cell and listen to it. Other available methods of multiplexing such as polarization division multiple access (PDMA) and time division multiple access (TDMA) cannot be used to separate signals from one cell to the next since the effects of both vary with position and this would make signal separation practically impossible. Time division multiple access, however, is used in combination with either FDMA or CDMA in a number of systems to give multiple channels within the coverage area of a single cell.

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EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER-2

The first commercial computer called Univac (Universal Automatic Computer) using vacuum tube circuits was used by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951. Computers using vacuum tube circuits belonged to FERST GENRATION COMPUTERS. Invention of the transistor by Bell Labs in U.S.A. gave birth to Second Generation Computers which used transistors instead of vacuum tubes. An example of Second Generation Computer is the IBM 1401. Third Generation Computers were introduced in the mid-1960 with the invention of tiny integrated circuits on silicon chips. IBM released its 360 series computers with integrated chips of 28/1000 each sq. carrying more than 1000 circuits. Large scale integrated chips become available in1969. Computers which used large scale integrated chips can be called Forth Generation Computers even though there is no general agreement on what constitutes a Forth Generation Computer.

 

Invention of the micro-processor in 1972 has changed the computing scene dramatically. A micro-processor when interfaced with memory and input/output units become a micro computer. A micro-computer is very small in size (can be actually placed on a table top) but is very powerful and provides a user-friendly atmosphere for managers to interact with it. The first business micro-computer called APPLE II was released in U.S.A. in 1977. A micro-computer which is reasonably powerful can be bought today for as low as Rs.20,000.

 

Recent advances in the field of artificial intelligence are being used to design a “thinking computer”. These computers can be called Fifth Generation Computers. A special feature anticipated in this computers is their ability to respond to spoken words. These computers are expected to be in the market by 1990.

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER-1

Computers have brought about a revolution in the field of computing as a result of technological advancement in the field of electronics. “Abacus”, the fist mathematical device used to facilitate arithmetical computation, was invented by the ancient Chinese before the birth of Christ. Abacus beads Strung of wires to aid arithmetical computations and is believed to have been in use till recently. 

The first mechanical ‘Computer’ called ‘Analytical Engine’ designed by Charles

Babbage between 1830 and 1850 marked the birth of computer age. This was the first mechanical computer capable of performing basic arithmetical functions. Charles Babbage designed his analytical engine around five components, namely,

 

• A STORE to hold numbers,
• An ARITHMETIC UNIT (which he called the ‘Mill’) to perform arithmetical operations,
• A CONTROL UNIT to control and coordinate various activities in the correct sequence,
• An IMPUT device to transfer both numbers and instructions into the computer, and
• An OUTPUT device to display the results of computations.

Remarkably even today’s computers are built around the same concepts. However, modern electronic computers provide three major advantages:

 

• Enabling the computer to operate at electronic speeds (an electron travels approximately 1 foot in 1 billionth of a seconds),
• Providing tremendous reliability,
• Making the computer a general purpose machine.

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Overlooking Human Acceptance

The first important stage to organizing MIS at the corporate level is to build up comprehensive data-base from TPS for the clerical systems. Valid data should be initially classified and codes attached to each data-set. Thereafter data-base should be constantly undated. The analogy to a reference library system is almost uncanny, where books have to be classified according to the subjects (e.g. 001 for reference, economics, management, etc.) and then codes attached to each book (e.g. 001 for reference, 338 for economics, 658 for management, etc.). Thereafter the books need constant updating through cataloguing and indexing. A library, however, is not as amenable to easy cross-reference among a vast number of books, as a computerized data-base is. With classification, codification and updating, a computerized data-base can help the user with almost instant retrieval of any amount of cross-classified and cross-revised data, thus helping tremendously the decision-making process. We can take example of mailing leads or mortgage mailing list.

 

A new MIS quite often meets resistance form the user-organization because people do not accept what they do not understand. Such reasons for resistance have to be analysed and a new attitude brought into overcome it. Ross identified the reasons as threat to the status of the salesmen; threat to the ego of the managers; economic threat to the clerical persons (fear of job less), insecurity for the managers having personal powers and political base; loss of autonomy and control for the production managers and engineers; and frayed and inter-personal relations for all others.

 

A number of public and private sector organizations such as BHEL, Hindustan Zinc Ltd., NTPC, Bhadrachalam Paper Board, etc. have started a process of systematic programme of training and user-education. It is imperative that such education begins at the top level for computer appreciation, at the middle management for specific computer applications in their own domains, and at the working level for direct involvement in input and output quality control. MIS helps to keep marketing list updated. It is good to see the bulk of Indian organizations going through such an elaborate process of computer initiation as there is no short-cu to it.

 

Failure to Identify Information Needs

A clear identification of information needs is fundamental and necessary to go for design of a corporate MIS. Recently, a Central Government department spent lavish sums on hardware and software to perpetuate the existing 53 MIS reports and to build a sophisticated data-bank without first determining the real information needs of management. It is often forgotten that only that information should go into the corporate MIS which can increase the perception of managers on critical areas such as problems, alternatives, opportunities and plans.

 

At least there have been two States in India which built up comprehensive land-record data-banks without examining what the user needed from these data-banks. The enormous costs for building their data-banks were later found to be unjustified and both these States have since discontinued their efforts in this area. On the other hand, another State (Utter Pradesh) has begun on a limited basis to build up corporate MIS for 200 parameters for a couple of districts and, after ascertaining the user-needs, it is proposed to extend the MIS further to all the districts.

 

It is the user-manager who is to provide the specification for what he wants out of his corporate MIS. If the manager fails to do so, the computer professional by default would provide his own objectives and his own information needs. These would seldom meet the needs of the user-manager.

Managerial Participation

The Single most critical problem in effective computer utilisation is the meet for understanding and support form top management. In a State like Andhra Pradesh, the Chief Minister’s personal encouragement has paved the way to bring computerised MIS gradually to all the districts, apart from their wide-spread use in State departments and in the Secretariat. 

 

Even after top management support is ensured, it is necessary that there is user participation in the design phase on corporate MIS so as to avoid subsequent extensive and time-consuming re-work. This can be called “overnight syndrome” where user spell out there needs and expect the computer professionals to deliver the outputs immediately thereafter. Like solvent recyclers works.Converting jobs eventually for computerisation needs a stabilisation period, which is all too easily forgotten

 

An example of the above is the case of Utter Pradesh State Electricity Board which went for computerised electricity billing for the Western districts. In the design phase, the Board authorities dictated that only Agra and Ghaziabad should have a pilot project before its extension to all other districts. Also, manual financial ledgers for at least two billing cycles so as to generate enough confidence in the computerised ledgers. The result was a smooth introduction of computerisation. On the other hand, another State Electricity Board went through a similar computerization process without the benefit of any pilot project or parallel run on the grounds that the results were needed fast and they were spending money on computers in any case. We need to use solvent recycler before we use any other liquid, other wise output will be different. 

 

The consequence was a disaster when many erroneous bills came and in some cases none at all. There were questions in the Parliament and an enquiry committee under the Central Electricity Authority had to investigate the mistakes. The result was to cancel the existing computerisation, to start de novo, after having spent several lakhs of rupees which went waste. In case of chemicals, we need to do solvent recycle before we do any process, same way we need to  check it with manually as well as compurerisation together for sometime

 

It makes good sense, as has been experienced in the NTPC, when the user-manager picks up a minimum familiarity with the MIS at the beginning. From the point of view of the organisation, corporate MIS is as much a vital part of the operation as marketing operations and finance are today. Indian Airlines, too, discovered that mangers had to be involved in order to get better and more effective information systems by virtue of their participation. A similar approach is being followed in LIC.

 

 

Lack of good Management System

It is imperative for successful corporate MIS on computer that there is good planning and control within the framework of an efficient organisational structure. No degree of sophistication with computers can cure the basic ill of chaotic data management.

 

There have been many organizations where computerization has not brought any tangible improvements because there has been no systematic handling of data or attention paid to the data management. In such cases, there would have been considerable gain by first conducting a good Organisation and Method (O&M) study. MIS has to be built on top by a management system which should include the organisational arrangements, the structure and procedures for adequate planning and control, the clear establishment of objective, and all other manifestations of good organization in management.

 

It is interesting to note that good computer professionals know their craft but are simply not oriented to managerial jobs. In other words, the broad-based skills, which are necessary to function both in the computer room and in meeting with user-manager for the MIS, are conspicuous by their absence. This phenomenon has been known globally and that is why computer professionals are often called ‘machine-mesmerised’, where they are more loyal to their profession than to their organisation!

Lack of Master Plan

The bulk of computer failures are due to the lack of master plans to which hardware acquisition, software development and individual MIS design can be related. Without such a plan, “islands of mechanization” result with little integration between separate systems.

 

The TISCO studied the interface of various systems like production planning and control system, financial control system, and sales invoicing and order processing system. It was observed that if individual systems were developed without regard to their mutual interfaces, the result would be an absence of communication between the systems and the incompatibility of the systems would prevail throughout the company. Tradeshow exhibits or custom exhibits help companies to reach to mass easily. This was prevented by building up sufficient linkages among these systems and developing an integrated approach according to a master plan. A similar approach was also adopted by TELCO with encouraging results.

 

Organization of the MIS Function 

Since clerical systems came first involving accounting, pay roll, inventory returns and similar financial jobs, the transaction processing system developed around all of them. Following the normal principle of assigning a service activity by “familiarity”, the historical trend in India has been to assign the computer to the Controller of Finance or Chief Accountant. This has been the case in the TISCO, TELCO, Indian Railways and elsewhere. Only now the situation is being reversed and in HAL, BHEL etc., MIS function has been placed under the user-manager. 

 

With more distributed processing becoming possible, the trend has been to place computer-aided decision-making where it belongs, mainly under the user-manger with his own computing power. Sometime tradeshow display makes it easy for company to reach clients. Already, the personal computers (PCs) have made this trend possible in practice, with individual data-based available to the users. Similarly, terminals are available to most important users to share central computing power. In both cases, all PCs as well as terminals, the control of the computer-aided activity has to remain with the user-manager.

Service Bureaus or Computer Vendors

Quite often, Indian user-manager is approached by computer vendor who brain washes the management into buying his system, indicating that the system has all the solutions to the managerial problems. The end-result is that either the user gets a system which is too large for him with a lot of computer “fat” or he gets inadequate computing power for his needs.

 

Ross suggests that there should not be any technical romance with the computer vendor but a return on investment (ROI) approach to expenditure. Further, the user-manager should operate with a master plan, rather than react to the vendor’s suggestions. There have been cases where an organisation had appointed a service bureau for a large sum of money to develop a corporate MIS. After spending an year as well as a couple of lakhs of rupees, the user-organisation was thoroughly dissatisfied with the recommendations of the service bureau and did not implement it.